Charles I's execution solved one problem but created others- who would govern? And with what legitimacy? Politically dominant by 1649, Cromwell made several attempts to fashion a lasting political solution during the years of the Republic, 1649- 60. Britain was a Commonwealth during 1649- 53, with executive power vested in a Council of State and legislative authority vested in the Rump. However, when the Rump proved unable to provide clear, decisive leadership, Cromwell dissolved it, and the three kingdoms became a Protectorate with Cromwell acting as Lord Protector. The enthusiastic Parliamentarian was now King in all but name. Cromwell declined the offer of the throne in 1657, probably because he knew the army would object. Cromwell died in September 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard. However, as the state drifted towards anarchy during 1659, only one solution seemed possible and so, in May 1660, the Stuarts were restored to their thrones in the person of Charles II. An avowed sensualist, Charles had more in common with his grandfather than with his highly moral father. He also knew when to bend and compromise and his disinterest in major constitutional issues provided the three kingdoms with the tranquility they needed after twelve yeas of turmoil. The only political principle to which Charles was wedded was the principle of legitimate succession for Charles, in the absence of legitimate heirs, was determined that his brother James should succeed him on his demise. James' open Catholicism precipitated an Exclusion Crisis during 1679- 81 which Charles weathered because his finances were sound and he was able to govern without Parliament. When Charles expired in February 1685, the three kingdoms and Wales had their first Catholic monarch for 130 years. Catholic monarchs were suspected of absolutist and religiously intolerant tendencies and James VII/II did nothing to allay these fears during his short reign. Catholics were appointed to senior army and navy posts, Catholics (and dissenters) received Freedom of Worship through non-parliamentary means, a standing army was formed, and local government and the judiciary were packed with royal sympathisers. As long as the succession was going to pass to James' Protestant daughter Mary, all this was tolerable, but when James' wife, Mary of Modena, produced a son and heir in June 1688, concerned Protestants and lovers of liberty were terrified. They would have to move quickly. In July, a group of Protestant nobles and clergy invited William of Orange (Mary's soldier- husband) to invade England to save it from 'popery'. William landed at Torbay in November and support for James quickly melted away. When James tried to return two years later, he was decisively defeated at the Battle of the Boyne and William's victory was assured. The Glorious Revolution's political victory was secured during 1689- 1701. Much of the seventeenth century's political conflict had been created by the absence of clear guidelines to regulate relations between Parliament and Crown, and the Glorious Revolution endeavoured to resolve this friction by creating a new framework based on co-operation. Under the Revolution settlement, Parliament was to sit at least once every three years, no standing armies were allowed without Parliamentary approval, and the Crown was prohibited from suspending or implementing laws or raising money without Parliamentary approval. Political stability was to be secured on the basis of Crown and Parliament working in partnership. The inability of Mary and her sister Anne (1702-14) to produce healthy heirs prompted Parliament to pass the Act of Settlement in 1701. Under this legislation, succession was settled on the House of Hanover and all future monarchs were required to be communicating Anglicans. This eighteenth century legislation still underpins Britain's uncodified twenty-first century constitution.