The First Civil War ended when Charles surrendered to the Covenanters in 1646, but political developments between the wars were extremely profound. After learning of the Confederate victory at Benburb, the Covenanters handed Charles over to the Parliamentarians so that they could re-kindle their anti-Catholic alliance. Perturbed by the influence which control of the King conferred on Parliament, the Army seized Charles in June 1647 so that it would gain the upper hand in any future negotiations. Four years of war had radicalised the Parliamentary troops, and Leveller ideas were extremely popular within the New Model Army. In October 1647, Army Grandees and 'agitators' met to discuss Leveller ideas in Putney Church but for property-owners such as Oliver Cromwell, the ideas of men such as Thomas Rainsborough were too extreme and the debates were wound up. Agitators who continued to expound Leveller ideas in their regiments were shot. Charles and the Covenanters were equally alarmed by radicalism in the Army and the rising influence of Independents. In December 1647, they formed an Engagement in which Charles promised to introduce Presbyterianism for three years in return for a Scots Covenanter army. The three kingdoms were on course for war again. The Second Civil War was short and brutal and ended in complete victory for Parliament when Cromwell's troops put the Scots Engagers to flight at Preston in August 1648. Although brief, the Second Civil War had great repercussions. Charles was now viewed as an unscrupulous monarch, a 'man of blood' who would do anything to regain his throne. From having been seen as essential to any peace deal, Charles was now viewed as an impediment. To remove Charles, the army needed a compliant Parliament and this could only be achieved by purging its moderate and conservative elements. In December 1648, Colonel Thomas Pride did exactly this and the remaining 'Rump' was prepared to do the Army's bidding in any regard - even regicide if necessary. The outcome of Charles' trial was pre-ordained. He refused to acknowledge the court's legitimacy or respond to any of the charges but it was no use. He was sentenced to death on 27th January 1649. Charles met his end with great fortitude on 30th January. Reaffirming his Protestantism and his innocence of all charges, the executioner then severed his head from his body with a single blow. A terrible low moan issued from the crowd - the people had committed regicide. What next?